The Second Battle of Es Salt (1918): A Strategic Struggle in the Middle East during World War I
The Second Battle of Es Salt, fought in 1918, was a pivotal confrontation during World War I, primarily in the Middle Eastern theatre. This battle, involving several key players, played an essential role in the shifting fortunes of the Arab Revolt and the Ottoman Empire’s control over the region. Set against the backdrop of the larger Great War, it represents a complex intersection of colonial interests, strategic military operations, and the intricate web of alliances in the Middle East.
Background and Context
By 1918, the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was witnessing significant shifts in power. The Arab Revolt, which had begun in 1916 with the encouragement and logistical support of the British Empire, aimed to dismantle the Ottoman Empire’s control over the Arabian Peninsula and greater Levant region. The forces behind the revolt, which included the notable figures of Sharif Hussein of Mecca and his sons, were heavily influenced by promises from the British of post-war independence in exchange for their support against the Ottoman forces.
At the same time, the Ottoman Empire was struggling to hold its vast territories together as the war continued to grind on in Europe and the Middle East. The British, with their allies, including Australian and New Zealand troops (ANZAC), aimed to weaken the Ottomans and ensure that the region would eventually fall under British influence. The British played a dual role—supporting the Arab insurgents, but also seeking to maintain their own colonial interests in the region.
The Second Battle of Es Salt was one of the many struggles in this wider context, a significant turning point in the fight for control of the Levant and a moment that would affect the post-war borders and the fate of many nations.
The Combatants: Who Were the Key Players?
The Second Battle of Es Salt saw a coalition of forces align against the Ottoman Empire and its loyalist factions. On one side, the Arab forces, assisted by British, Australian, and New Zealand troops, were attempting to seize control of the town of Es Salt, located in modern-day Jordan. The Arabs, under the command of Emir Faisal, son of Sharif Hussein, sought to expand their influence in the region and assert control over territories that were crucial for the larger Arab Revolt.
The Ottoman Empire, on the other side, had stationed a significant force at Es Salt, supported by loyalist troops from the region. These Ottoman forces were under the command of General Fakhri Pasha, whose forces had successfully repelled earlier Arab advances. The battle for Es Salt was as much about retaining control of key geographical areas as it was about morale and strategic positioning.
The involvement of Australian and New Zealand forces added a distinct flavor to the conflict. These forces, part of the British Empire’s larger military machine, were engaged in operations across the Middle East, including the well-known Gallipoli Campaign, and were used in various parts of the Levant. Their participation was not only a military asset for the British but also a significant part of the broader imperial strategy.
The Battle: A Clash of Armies
The Battle of Es Salt occurred from April 30 to May 4, 1918. The Arab forces, supported by British and ANZAC units, launched an assault on the town of Es Salt, which was a key Ottoman stronghold in Jordan. The fighting was intense, with both sides utilizing local terrain to their advantage. The Arabs, who had begun to develop better coordination between their forces, took advantage of their knowledge of the terrain, while the Ottoman forces used fortifications and defensive tactics to hold their ground.
Despite early successes, the Arab forces struggled to sustain their offensive against the well-fortified Ottoman positions. The Ottomans, under the command of General Fakhri Pasha, managed to defend the town through counterattacks, reinforcements, and strategic withdrawals. The Ottomans were able to maintain their hold on Es Salt, causing significant casualties among the attackers and forcing a retreat.
The battle was not simply a tactical conflict; it was part of a larger war for regional dominance. The result was a clear victory for the Ottoman Empire. The Arab forces, despite their resilience and tactical knowledge, could not overcome the Ottoman defenses. The involvement of British, Australian, and New Zealand forces, although significant in terms of numbers and resources, could not compensate for the Ottoman Empire’s strength in the region.
The Outcome: Strategic Implications and Consequences
The victory at Es Salt solidified the Ottoman hold over the region, but it also marked a temporary setback for the British and their Arab allies. While the Ottomans won the battle, the larger strategic picture was shifting in favor of the Allies. The battle did not reverse the tide of the war in the Middle East, where the British were already planning another large-scale offensive to capture Damascus and weaken the Ottoman presence in the region.
One of the key outcomes of the battle was the realization that the Ottomans, though capable of defending their territory in the short term, were losing the war on multiple fronts. The broader Allied offensive in the region would soon begin to chip away at Ottoman positions, with the eventual capture of Damascus later in 1918 marking the beginning of the end for Ottoman control over the Levant.
For the Arabs, the battle at Es Salt was a sobering experience, demonstrating both the strength of their adversaries and the challenges they faced in organizing a cohesive military effort. However, it also underscored the importance of continued support from their British allies, who were deeply involved in the region’s military operations. Despite their setbacks, the Arab forces would continue to play a significant role in the eventual defeat of the Ottomans, as they coordinated with the British for the final push toward Damascus.
The Legacy of the Second Battle of Es Salt
Although the Second Battle of Es Salt ended in a victory for the Ottoman Empire, it was part of a larger narrative that saw the eventual collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of World War I. The war led to the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, which dismantled much of the Ottoman Empire’s territorial holdings, including those in the Levant, paving the way for the modern Middle Eastern states we recognize today.
The battle’s significance lies not only in its military outcome but in its strategic context. It was one of the last major Ottoman strongholds in the Levant to fall, and although the Arab forces were not able to win the battle, they succeeded in contributing to the overall weakening of Ottoman power in the region. The Arab Revolt continued to play a significant role in shaping the political landscape of the Middle East in the years following the war, contributing to the rise of independent Arab nations, albeit under the shadow of British and French mandates.
Moreover, the Second Battle of Es Salt helped solidify the position of Emir Faisal as a prominent leader in the Arab world. His leadership, although tested by the difficulties of the revolt and the complexities of wartime alliances, would eventually contribute to his rise as the King of Iraq in the post-war period, under the British mandate.
Conclusion
The Second Battle of Es Salt was a critical chapter in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Although the Ottoman Empire emerged victorious, the battle reflected the broader shift in power dynamics in the region. It demonstrated the persistence of the Arab forces in their struggle for independence, despite the challenges they faced from a well-entrenched Ottoman military. It also highlighted the complexity of the British role in the Arab Revolt, as they balanced support for their allies with their own imperial interests.
In the larger context of World War I, the battle was one of the final moments of Ottoman strength in the Levant. The eventual defeat of the Ottomans would change the political landscape of the Middle East forever, paving the way for new national identities, borders, and conflicts in the years to come.