Sultans of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, one of the most significant and enduring empires in history, was ruled by a succession of sultans over its nearly six-century existence. These sultans, also known as “padishahs,” wielded immense power and shaped the empire’s destiny through their policies, conquests, and governance. Tracking the Ottoman sultans in chronological order provides insight into the empire’s evolution and the personalities that influenced its trajectory.

1. Osman I (Osman Gazi): Considered the founder of the Ottoman Empire, Osman I laid the groundwork for the state’s expansion in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. He established the Ottoman principality in northwest Anatolia and initiated the conquests that would lead to the empire’s establishment. Although he did not adopt the title of sultan during his lifetime, he is revered as the progenitor of the Ottoman dynasty.

2. Orhan I: The son of Osman I, Orhan I succeeded his father and assumed the title of sultan in 1326. During his reign, the Ottoman state expanded further into Byzantine territories, including the capture of Bursa, which became the empire’s first capital. Orhan’s reign marked a period of consolidation and territorial growth, laying the foundation for future expansion.

3. Murad I: Murad I ascended to the throne in 1362, following the death of his father, Orhan I. His reign was characterized by military campaigns that expanded Ottoman control into the Balkans, including the decisive Battle of Kosovo in 1389, where he defeated a coalition of Serbian and Balkan forces. Murad’s rule also saw the establishment of the devshirme system, which recruited Christian boys into the Ottoman military and administration.

4. Bayezid I (Bayezid Yıldırım): Bayezid I, known as Bayezid the Thunderbolt, ruled from 1389 to 1402. His reign was marked by intense territorial expansion, including the conquest of large parts of Anatolia, southeastern Europe, and the Balkans. However, his ambitions were checked by the defeat at the Battle of Ankara in 1402 against the Central Asian conqueror Timur, leading to his capture and the temporary fragmentation of the Ottoman state.

5. Mehmed I (Mehmed Çelebi): Following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by Timur, Mehmed I emerged as the sultan in 1413 after a period of internal strife and succession struggles known as the Ottoman Interregnum. He restored stability to the empire and initiated reforms to consolidate Ottoman rule. Mehmed’s reign saw the reconquest of territories lost after the Battle of Ankara and the restoration of Ottoman authority.

6. Murad II: Murad II, the son of Mehmed I, ruled as sultan from 1421 to 1444 and again from 1446 to 1451. His reign was marked by ongoing conflicts with European powers, particularly the Hungarian and Byzantine Empires, as well as internal challenges from rival claimants to the throne. Murad’s military campaigns expanded Ottoman control in the Balkans, although he abdicated temporarily in favor of his son Mehmed II.

7. Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror): Mehmed II is perhaps the most renowned Ottoman sultan, known for his conquest of Constantinople in 1453, which marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and established Istanbul as the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. His reign also saw significant territorial expansion into southeastern Europe, including the annexation of Serbia, Bosnia, and parts of Greece.

8. Bayezid II: Bayezid II succeeded his father Mehmed II and ruled from 1481 to 1512. His reign was characterized by a focus on consolidation rather than expansion, as he faced internal rebellions and external threats from European powers. Bayezid’s policies emphasized administrative reforms, cultural patronage, and diplomatic relations, contributing to a period of relative stability and prosperity within the empire.

9. Selim I (Selim the Grim): Selim I became sultan in 1512 after deposing his father Bayezid II. His reign was marked by significant military conquests, including the defeat of the Safavid Empire at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 and the conquest of Egypt and the Levant in 1517, which brought the holy cities of Mecca and Medina under Ottoman control. Selim’s expansionist policies extended Ottoman influence into the heart of the Islamic world.

10. Suleiman I (Suleiman the Magnificent): Suleiman I, the son of Selim I, ascended to the throne in 1520 and reigned until 1566. His reign is often regarded as the pinnacle of Ottoman power and influence, characterized by military conquests, cultural flourishing, and administrative reforms. Suleiman’s conquests included the capture of Belgrade, Rhodes, and the Siege of Vienna in 1529, as well as the expansion of Ottoman territories in the Mediterranean and the Middle East.

11. Selim II: Selim II, also known as Selim the Sot, succeeded his father Suleiman I and ruled from 1566 to 1574. His reign was marked by a decline in the central authority of the sultanate and increased power struggles among the Ottoman elite, including the rise of the Janissaries, the elite infantry units of the Ottoman army, as a political force. Selim II’s reign also saw the loss of significant territories in the Mediterranean, including Cyprus to the Venetians.

12. Murad III: Murad III ruled as sultan from 1574 to 1595, inheriting a troubled empire facing internal strife and external threats. His reign saw continued conflict with the Safavid Empire in the east and the Habsburg Empire in the west, as well as challenges from rebellions and uprisings within the empire. Murad III’s rule was also characterized by cultural patronage and the flourishing of the Ottoman arts and literature.

13. Mehmed III: Mehmed III ascended to the throne in 1595 and ruled until 1603. His reign was marked by the military conquest of Azerbaijan and the Caucasus, as well as conflicts with the Habsburg Empire and the Safavid Empire. Mehmed III’s rule was also overshadowed by the political influence of his mother, Safiye Sultan, and the rise of factionalism within the Ottoman court.

14. Ahmed I: Ahmed I became sultan in 1603 and ruled until 1617. His reign was marked by efforts to reform the Ottoman military and administration, including the establishment of the Nizam-i Cedid (New Order) army. Ahmed I also pursued diplomatic initiatives with European powers, including a treaty with the Habsburg Empire that temporarily ended hostilities between the two empires. However, his reign was marred by conflicts with the Safavid Empire and internal unrest.

15. Mustafa I: Mustafa I briefly ruled as sultan in 1617, following the deposition of his brother Ahmed I. His reign was marked by political instability and conflicts within the Ottoman court, as well as external threats from the Safavid Empire and rebellions in Anatolia. Mustafa I’s rule was characterized by his struggle with mental illness, which led to his eventual deposition and replacement by his nephew Osman II.

16. Osman II: Osman II ruled as sultan from 1618 to 1622. His reign was marked by ambitious military campaigns, including attempts to conquer Poland and push into Europe. However, Osman II faced opposition from the Janissaries, who resented his attempts to reform the military and limit their privileges. His reign ended tragically with his assassination at the hands of the Janissaries during a rebellion in Istanbul.

17. Murad IV: Murad IV became sultan in 1623 and ruled until 1640. His reign was characterized by efforts to restore central authority and discipline within the empire, including harsh measures against corruption, bribery, and moral laxity. Murad IV’s rule saw the suppression of rebellions and revolts, as well as military campaigns against the Safavid Empire and the Ottoman vassal state of Transylvania. He also implemented policies to regulate social behavior and enforce Islamic morality.

18. Ibrahim: Ibrahim ruled as sultan from 1640 to 1648, following the death of his brother Murad IV. His reign was marked by a contrast to the strict and disciplined rule of his predecessor, with Ibrahim indulging in lavish spending, debauchery, and excessive luxury. His reign saw the influence of powerful women in the imperial harem, including his mother Kösem Sultan and his favorite concubine, Turhan Hatice Sultan. Ibrahim’s rule ended with his deposition and execution in a coup orchestrated by the Janissaries.

19. Mehmed IV: Mehmed IV became sultan in 1648 at the age of seven and ruled until 1687. His reign saw significant military defeats, including the loss of Crete to the Republic of Venice and the devastating defeat at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the beginning of the decline of Ottoman power in Europe. Mehmed IV’s rule also witnessed internal strife and conflicts within the Ottoman court, as well as the emergence of powerful viziers and military commanders.

20. Suleiman II: Suleiman II ruled as sultan from 1687 to 1691, ascending to the throne during a period of decline and turmoil for the Ottoman Empire. His reign was marked by attempts to reverse the empire’s fortunes through military campaigns and diplomatic initiatives. However, Suleiman II faced challenges from internal dissent, including rebellions and uprisings, as well as external pressures from European powers seeking to exploit Ottoman weaknesses.

21. Ahmed II: Ahmed II became sultan in 1691 and ruled until 1695. His reign was characterized by efforts to stabilize the empire and reform its military and administration. Ahmed II faced challenges from rebellions in Anatolia and conflicts with European powers, including the Habsburg Empire and Venice. His reign also witnessed the continuing decline of Ottoman power in Europe and the Mediterranean.

22. Mustafa II: Mustafa II ruled as sultan from 1695 to 1703, inheriting a weakened empire facing internal strife and external threats. His reign saw the Great Turkish War against the Habsburg Empire and its allies, resulting in the loss of significant territories in Hungary and the Balkans. Mustafa II’s rule also witnessed the rise of powerful viziers and military commanders who exerted considerable influence over imperial policy.

23. Ahmed III: Ahmed III became sultan in 1703 and ruled until 1730. His reign was marked by efforts to reform the Ottoman military and administration, including the establishment of the Tulip Era, characterized by cultural flourishing and European-style innovations. Ahmed III pursued diplomatic initiatives with European powers and sought to modernize the empire’s institutions. However, his reign also saw the decline of Ottoman influence in Europe and the emergence of regional powers challenging Ottoman hegemony.

24. Mahmud I: Mahmud I ruled as sultan from 1730 to 1754, inheriting an empire facing internal unrest and external pressures. His reign saw the Patrona Halil rebellion, a significant uprising against Ottoman authority, as well as conflicts with European powers, including the Russo-Turkish War of 1735-1739. Mahmud I’s rule witnessed attempts to modernize the Ottoman military and administration, although these efforts were hampered by entrenched interests and bureaucratic inertia.

25. Osman III: Osman III ruled as sultan from 1754 to 1757. His reign was relatively brief and uneventful, marked by attempts to implement fiscal and administrative reforms to address the empire’s financial difficulties. Osman III’s rule also saw conflicts with European powers, including the outbreak of the Seven Years’ War, which strained Ottoman diplomatic relations and military resources.

26. Mustafa III: Mustafa III became sultan in 1757 and ruled until 1774. His reign witnessed the continuation of conflicts with European powers, including the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, which resulted in territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire. Mustafa III implemented administrative reforms and sought to modernize the Ottoman military, but his efforts were undermined by corruption and inefficiency within the imperial bureaucracy.

27. Abdul Hamid I: Abdul Hamid I ruled as sultan from 1774 to 1789. His reign was marked by attempts to rebuild the Ottoman military and strengthen the empire’s defenses following the losses incurred during the Russo-Turkish War. Abdul Hamid I also pursued diplomatic initiatives with European powers and sought to modernize the empire’s institutions. However, his reign saw internal dissent and challenges from rival factions within the Ottoman court.

28. Selim III: Selim III became sultan in 1789 and ruled until 1807. His reign was characterized by efforts to modernize the Ottoman military and administration, including the establishment of the Nizam-i Cedid (New Order) reforms. Selim III sought to emulate European models of governance and military organization, but his reforms faced opposition from entrenched interests within the Ottoman elite, leading to his eventual deposition and assassination in a coup orchestrated by conservative elements.

29. Mustafa IV: Mustafa IV briefly ruled as sultan in 1807, following the deposition and execution of his cousin Selim III. His reign was marked by political instability and conflicts within the Ottoman court, as well as external threats from European powers. Mustafa IV’s rule ended with his deposition and execution in a coup led by Mahmud II, who would go on to implement significant reforms during his own reign.

30. Mahmud II: Mahmud II became sultan in 1808 and ruled until 1839. His reign was a transformative period for the Ottoman Empire, marked by extensive reforms aimed at modernizing the military, administration, and legal system. Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps, instituted a new conscription system, and introduced the Tanzimat reforms to centralize authority and promote equality before the law. His reign also saw conflicts with regional powers and the emergence of nationalist movements within the empire.

31. Abdulmejid I: Abdulmejid I ruled as sultan from 1839 to 1861. His reign was characterized by efforts to modernize the Ottoman state and society through the implementation of further Tanzimat reforms. Abdulmejid I sought to strengthen the empire’s economy, infrastructure, and education system, but his reign also faced challenges from nationalist movements and European powers seeking to exploit Ottoman weaknesses.

32. Abdulaziz: Abdulaziz became sultan in 1861 and ruled until 1876. His reign saw continued efforts to modernize the Ottoman Empire, including the construction of railways, telegraph lines, and