The Attack on the Canton Forts: A Critical Moment in the First and Second Opium Wars
The Attack on the Canton Forts, a pivotal moment in the 1856 escalation of the Second Opium War, represents one of the most significant military engagements between the United States and the Qing Dynasty of China. This event, which occurred in the year 1856 in the southern port city of Canton (modern-day Guangzhou), marked not only an important shift in U.S.-China relations but also underscored the broader geopolitical tensions in the region during the mid-19th century. The historical significance of the attack is often explored through the lens of imperialism, the global trade in opium, and the international consequences of military intervention.
Background: The Opium Wars and Sino-Western Relations
To understand the Attack on the Canton Forts fully, it is essential to consider the broader context of Sino-Western relations at the time. The First Opium War (1839–1842) had already resulted in the Treaty of Nanking, which forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain, open five ports to foreign trade, and grant extraterritorial rights to foreign nationals. Despite this agreement, tensions continued to rise, especially over the opium trade, which was a source of major revenue for British merchants and a growing social and economic problem for the Qing government.
The Second Opium War (1856–1860), also known as the Arrow War, was initiated largely by a combination of British and French interests in expanding their trading rights and further undermining China’s sovereignty. The direct cause of the conflict was the seizure of the British-flagged ship, the Arrow, by Chinese authorities. This incident, involving allegations of piracy and the mistreatment of British nationals, became a pretext for the renewed British and French military actions in China.
However, the United States, which was pursuing its own interests in China, found itself increasingly involved in the conflict. U.S. economic interests, particularly related to trade and the expanding opium markets, led to growing American involvement in what was essentially a British and French military campaign. The Attack on the Canton Forts served as a crucial turning point in the United States’ role in the war.
The Attack on the Canton Forts (1856)
In October of 1856, following the seizure of the Arrow, British and French forces began preparations to attack China. As part of their military strategy, the Allied forces sought to neutralize the defenses of Canton, which were crucial to securing control over the region. The city was home to a significant portion of China’s foreign trade, and controlling its fortifications was seen as vital to gaining leverage over the Qing Dynasty.
Canton was protected by two main forts located on either side of the Pearl River, which led to the city’s harbor. The forts were heavily fortified, with significant artillery positions aimed at any approaching forces from the sea. The Chinese military had anticipated an assault, but the strength and coordination of the Western forces would prove overwhelming.
The United States, which was sympathetic to British and French interests but also pursued its own agenda in China, played a crucial role in this military operation. U.S. naval forces under Commodore James Armstrong participated in the assault on the Canton Forts, adding a new dimension to the conflict. The United States, unlike Britain and France, was not seeking territorial expansion in China but aimed to protect its trade interests, particularly those related to opium and other goods.
Key Events During the Attack
The attack commenced on October 23, 1856, when U.S., British, and French warships launched a joint assault against the Canton Forts. The combined naval forces used artillery bombardment to destroy the fortifications, which had been heavily manned by Chinese defenders. In addition to the naval assault, ground forces were also engaged in fighting. The initial Chinese resistance was fierce, but the overwhelming firepower and technological superiority of the Allied forces led to a swift defeat.
The Chinese were unable to mount an effective defense against the superior firepower of the Western forces. The U.S. Navy, in particular, was instrumental in providing artillery support, while the British forces led the land assault. The Canton Forts fell within days of the attack, and the city itself was largely under Allied control.
Despite the military success, the Attack on the Canton Forts did not mark the end of hostilities. Instead, it was one step in a much larger campaign that eventually led to the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin in 1858, followed by the Convention of Peking in 1860, which further opened up China to foreign trade and cemented Western control over various territories.
The Aftermath: U.S. and Chinese Relations
Following the attack, the United States was officially recognized as a participant in the war, alongside Britain and France. The United States’ involvement in the conflict deepened the complexity of Sino-American relations. While the U.S. did not seek the same territorial gains as Britain or France, its active participation in the attack and its role in the postwar treaties ensured its place in the emerging global order.
For China, the loss of Canton and the signing of additional treaties were humiliating. The Qing Dynasty had already been struggling with internal rebellion, particularly the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), and foreign intervention exacerbated the instability. The Treaty of Tientsin and the subsequent Convention of Peking further eroded Chinese sovereignty and opened more ports to foreign merchants.
Despite this, the Qing Dynasty did manage to regain some measure of stability by the end of the 19th century. However, the period following the Attack on the Canton Forts represented a significant weakening of the empire’s central authority, marking the beginning of what is often referred to as the “Century of Humiliation” in Chinese history.
The Significance of the Battle
The Attack on the Canton Forts had far-reaching implications for the United States, China, and global geopolitics. For the United States, it marked an important moment in its emergence as a global imperial power. While the U.S. was not yet seeking to establish colonies or exert direct control over China, its military intervention in the Opium Wars set the stage for future American involvement in Asian affairs.
For China, the loss of Canton was a devastating blow, further weakening the Qing Dynasty’s control over its own territory and economy. It also solidified China’s subjugation to the demands of Western imperial powers. The consequences of the attack and the subsequent treaties were felt long after the battle itself, shaping China’s foreign relations and internal policies for generations.
The Attack on the Canton Forts serves as a key example of the interplay between military power, economic interests, and imperialism in the 19th century. It underscores the role of Western powers, particularly the United States, in shaping the modern history of China and the broader Pacific region.